Which was not a major cause of Russian weakness in the mid-1800s?autocratic ruleserfdomshortages of landdefeat in the Crimean War

mong the options provided, "shortages of land" was not a major cause of Russian weakness in the mid-1800s.

The major causes of Russian weakness during this period included:

1. Autocratic Rule: The Russian Empire was characterized by autocratic rule, where the power was concentrated in the hands of the tsar (emperor). This centralized and absolute rule hindered political and social reforms.
2. Serfdom: The system of serfdom, which tied the majority of the Russian population to the land and subjected them to the authority of landowners, contributed to economic stagnation and social unrest. The serfs lacked freedom and were economically disadvantaged.
3. Defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856): Russia's defeat in the Crimean War against a coalition of European powers exposed weaknesses in its military, industrial, and transportation systems. This defeat highlighted the need for modernization and reform in the Russian Empire.

While shortages of land could be a concern for specific regions or individuals, it was not considered a major, overarching cause of Russian weakness during the mid-1800s. Instead, the issues mentioned above played more central roles in shaping Russia's challenges and eventual reforms.