how did the Muslims treat conquered peoples?

The treatment of conquered peoples by Muslims throughout history varied widely and depended on numerous factors, including the time period, geographical location, specific Muslim rulers, and cultural influences. It's important to recognize that Islam, as a religion, does provide guidelines for the treatment of non-Muslims, emphasizing justice, tolerance, and respect for the rights of minorities. However, the historical record is diverse, and practices were not uniform across different regions and periods.

Here are some general points to consider:

1. Dhimmitude: In many historical Muslim empires, conquered non-Muslims (known as dhimmis) were often accorded a protected status. They were required to pay a special tax called the jizya but were exempted from military service. In return, they were entitled to the protection of the state and the right to practice their religion. The treatment of dhimmis varied, with some experiencing relative tolerance and coexistence, while others faced discrimination.

2. Cultural and Religious Diversity: Muslim rulers in various regions presided over diverse societies with different religious and cultural backgrounds. The treatment of conquered peoples could be influenced by the existing traditions and policies of the ruling authority.

3. Local Practices: The treatment of conquered peoples was sometimes influenced by pre-existing local customs and practices. In some cases, existing administrative structures and legal systems were retained.

4. Individual Rulers and Periods: Muslim rulers differed in their attitudes and policies towards conquered peoples. Some were known for their tolerance and inclusivity, while others may have been more restrictive.

5. Periods of Conflict vs. Stability: During times of conflict, conquests, or political instability, the treatment of conquered peoples could be harsher. Conversely, during periods of stability, there could be more efforts toward governance, administration, and coexistence.

It's important to approach this topic with nuance and avoid generalizations, as the treatment of conquered peoples varied across time and place. Additionally, the experiences of conquered peoples were not solely determined by religious identity; political, economic, and cultural factors also played significant roles.