What were the major causes of the famines in Ukraine in 1929 and 1933?

The major causes of the famines in Ukraine in 1929 and 1933, particularly the catastrophic Holodomor famine of 1932-1933, were a combination of environmental conditions, economic policies, and political factors. The two most significant components that led to these famines were the economic policies of the Soviet government under Joseph Stalin, and the resultant political repression that followed.

1. Forced Collectivization: In an effort to consolidate farmland and transition from individualized farming to collective farms (kolkhozes), Stalin's government expropriated lands from peasants, leading to widespread disruption of agricultural productivity. Many skilled and successful farmers, labeled as "kulaks" (wealthy peasants), were stripped of their land and livestock, exiled, or executed, causing a loss of agricultural expertise.

2. Unrealistic Grain Quotas: The Soviet government set extremely high grain procurement quotas that did not take into account the natural crop yields. Peasants were unable to meet these quotas due to the disruptions caused by collectivization and other factors, like poor weather conditions.

3. Export Policies: Despite the shortages of food within Ukraine, the Soviet government continued to export grain to fund its industrialization projects. This further reduced the availability of food for local populations.

4. Severe Repressions: As the situation worsened, peasants who were suspected of hoarding grain or resisting collectivization were subjected to brutal repression by the Soviet state. Many were arrested, deported, or executed, exacerbating the fear and disorder in rural areas.

5. Poor Harvests: There were also natural factors at play, including poor harvests due to drought and other adverse weather conditions. However, these environmental factors were nowhere near as decisive as the government policies in causing the famines.

6. Ideological Warfare: Some historians argue that the famine was used as an ideological tool against Ukrainian nationalism and any form of dissent, in an effort to break resistance to Soviet policies and to subdue any aspirations for autonomy or independence.

These factors combined created a situation of dire food scarcity, resulting in extreme human suffering and millions of deaths. The severity of the Ukrainian famine has led to its recognition as a genocide by some countries and historians, who believe that the actions of Stalin's regime were designed to specifically target the Ukrainian people.