what was a major similarity between china's and Vietnam's resistance to domination by European imperial powers during the late 19th century

A major similarity between China's and Vietnam's resistance to domination by European imperial powers during the late 19th century was their efforts to modernize and reform in order to strengthen themselves against foreign influence and control. Both countries recognized that European military technology and organizational methods were superior and attempted to adopt some of these practices to resist imperialism effectively.

In China, this process was exemplified by the Self-Strengthening Movement (c. 1861–1895), which was an initiative by reform-minded officials to blend Chinese cultural traditions with Western technology and military reforms. The movement aimed at modernizing China's military, developing industrial capacities, and updating the education system.

Similarly, in Vietnam, leaders like Emperor Tự Đức initiated reforms intended to consolidate power and modernize the state. Although not as extensive as the Chinese attempts, Vietnamese rulers recognized the need to adopt Western-style governance and military strategies to counter the threat of French colonization.

In both cases, these efforts were challenged by internal struggles, conservative opposition, and the overwhelming military and technological advantage held by the European powers. Despite their efforts, both China and Vietnam struggled to effectively resist European imperialism during this period.

Extra: Imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was characterized by the expansion of European powers into Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world. European nations sought to acquire territories for various reasons, including economic gain, national prestige, and a belief in the superiority of their culture and technology.

For countries like China and Vietnam, this period represented a profound challenge to their sovereignty and traditional ways of life. Resistance to European imperialism could take many forms, from military confrontation to intellectual and cultural movements. In China, the Opium Wars had demonstrated the military might of the European powers, leading to efforts like the Self-Strengthening Movement, which, despite its partial successes, ultimately failed to prevent further incursions and spheres of influence imposed by foreign nations. The failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement was also exposed during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), where China was defeated by the also-modernizing Japanese force.

In Vietnam, resistance to the French came in the form of both military conflict and reform attempts, with figures like Nguyễn Trường Tộ advocating for modernization along Western lines. Vietnam's situation was further complicated by internal divisions and the Nguyen Dynasty's inability to effectively respond to French pressure, leading to the eventual colonization of Vietnam by France.

These struggles highlight the complexities of resistance in the age of imperialism, where the forces of tradition and progress often collided, and internal reforms were often too little or too late to stem the tide of European dominion. Imperialism, modernization, and national resistance are complex and interconnected phenomena that are critical to understanding the history and development of nations during this period.