What distinguishes Renaissance music from Medieval music, and how, in the broadest terms, do musical innovations of the time fit together with cultural upheavals at large?

Renaissance music is distinguished from Medieval music largely through its greater emphasis on harmony and counterpoint, its use of secular themes alongside sacred ones, the shift towards more equal vocal parts, and the development of new musical notation.

One of the critical ways in which Renaissance music differs from Medieval music is in its harmonic language. While Medieval music was largely monophonic, with Gregorian Chant as a prominent example, Renaissance music developed polyphonic textures, where multiple independent melodic lines were sung or played simultaneously, each with equal importance. This increased use of counterpoint resulted in richer harmonies and an increased complexity in musical composition.

Another significant distinction is the use of secular themes. During the Renaissance, there were not only advancements in sacred music but also a rise in secular music. Composers began to write more about humanistic themes, often influenced by the literature and art of the time, as well as exploring feelings and storytelling. This was fostered by the invention of printing, which allowed for the wider distribution of both sacred and secular music.

Furthermore, the Renaissance saw the development of more balanced and homogenous vocal textures. Medieval music, especially in its later stages, often featured a high voice part that carried the melody with other voices filling in harmonic textures below. In contrast, during the Renaissance, the idea of equal voice parts became more prominent, and all parts began to share melodic interest.

Musical notation also saw significant improvements during the Renaissance. The system became more refined and consistent, allowing composers to specify pitch, rhythm, and tempo with greater precision. This not only facilitated the creation of more complex music but also the preservation and dissemination of compositions throughout Europe.

Furthermore, the Age of Exploration and the contact with new cultures and ideas expanded the European musical palette. Composers began to experiment with different musical forms and were influenced by sounds and instruments from around the world.

In the context of religious upheaval, such as the Protestant Reformation, music played a critical role in worship and was an area of significant development. The Council of Trent, part of the Counter-Reformation, called for music that was clear in text and expression, which drove composers to refine their approach to sacred music.

In summary, the Renaissance period was marked by an explosion of creativity and innovation in music, fueled by broader cultural developments that encouraged a more human-centered approach to art and learning.