what did the pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica have in common? how did they differ?

The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica, which include the Olmecs, Mayans, Aztecs, and many others, shared several commonalities and also exhibited significant differences.

Commonalities:

1. Agriculture: All these civilizations fundamentally depended on agriculture, with maize being the staple crop. They developed various farming techniques like slash-and-burn agriculture and the use of chinampas (floating gardens).

2. Religion: These civilizations shared polytheistic beliefs, worshipping multiple gods often associated with natural elements like the sun, rain, and maize. Human sacrifice was also a common religious practice, meant to appease or provide for the gods.

3. Architecture: They built pyramids, temples, and palaces, which often held religious significance. These structures were usually grand and intricate, showing a high level of architectural expertise.

4. Social Structure: A hierarchical social structure was predominant, with a ruling class, a priesthood, warriors, merchants, and a large class of farmers, laborers, and slaves.

5. Calendar and Astronomy: They had sophisticated knowledge of astronomy, which allowed them to create accurate calendars. The Mayan calendar is particularly well known.

6. Trade: These civilizations engaged in trade networks that allowed for the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices.

7. Writing and Record-keeping: Most of the pre-Columbian civilizations developed forms of writing and record-keeping. The Mayan script is the most well-understood pre-Columbian writing system.

Differences:

1. Language and Writing: While some civilizations like the Maya developed complete writing systems, others like the Aztecs used pictograms and ideograms that were less comprehensive.

2. Time Periods and Longevity: These civilizations existed at different times and had varying spans of influence. For instance, the Olmec civilization is considered the earliest known major civilization in Mexico, whereas the Aztec civilization was thriving at the time of the Spanish conquest.

3. Art and Symbolism: Artistic styles and symbolism varied quite a bit, with each civilization having its own unique artwork, pottery styles, and iconography.

4. Territorial Reach and Political Organization: Some civilizations, like the Aztecs, had large empires with a centralized government, while others had city-states or were less politically unified.

5. Technological Innovations: Each civilization had its own set of technologies and innovations. For example, the Mayans made advances in mathematics and astronomy, while the Aztecs were known for their monumental architecture and infrastructure within Tenochtitlan.

6. Responses to Environmental Challenges: Each civilization adapted to its environment differently. The Mayans faced prolonged droughts, whereas the Aztecs dealt with the challenges of building a city on a lake.

Understanding these commonalities and differences is crucial not only for understanding the complexity of Mesoamerican history but also for appreciating the multitude of human experiences and ingenuity in the face of diverse environmental and sociopolitical challenges.